The following article is by my friend Bill Dollarhide, taken from his book, U.S. Territories Censuses & Substitute Names Lists, 1590-2015.
Prologue: The U.S. currently has a total of sixteen (16) territories, eleven (11) of which are unorganized and mostly uninhabited islands administered by the U.S. Interior Department. Five (5) U.S. territories are well populated places that function with a territorial governor, legislature, judicial system, and an elected U.S. Representative to Congress. For this review, two former U.S. territories are identified as well.
Official Classification of U.S. Territories
Incorporated Organized Territories (0) were those of the United States that were Incorporated (part of the United States proper) and Organized (having a government authorized by an Organic Act passed by Congress, including a territorial legislature, territorial governor, and a basic judicial system). Within an Organized Territory, residents are under protection of the U.S. Constitution (Citizenship, Bill of Rights, Trial by Jury, et al). The first such territory was the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio, created in 1787. The last were Hawaii Territory (1898) and Alaska Territory (1912) until both reached statehood in 1959. There are currently no U.S. territories in this classification.
Incorporated Unorganized Territories (1) are those that are part of the United States proper, but have no organized government. There is one territory of the U.S. in this classification: Palmyra Atoll, considered part of the United States proper due to its former status under the Kingdom of Hawaii at the time of the Hawaiian Annexation to the U.S.
Unincorporated Organized Territories (5) are those that are not incorporated into the United States proper, but have an organized government. There are currently five (5) territories of the U.S. in this classification: Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands and American Samoa. Note: Under its current legal relationship with the U.S., American Samoa is not actually an official Organized Territory, but yet it has all of the elements of one, including an elected governor and legislature, and non-voting member of congress. From 1903 to 1979, there was an official Organized Territory of the U.S. called the Panama Canal Zone. A Commonwealth Territory is a type of Organized Territory of the United States that has a Constitution of self government adopted by Congress, but one that can not be overturned or modified by Congress without the approval of the Commonwealth. Currently, there are two organized territories of the United States with Commonwealth status: Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. There was once a U.S. Commonwealth of the Philippines from 1934 to 1946.
Unincorporated Unorganized Territories (10) are those not in the United States proper, and have no organization. This classification currently has seven (7) Pacific Ocean Islands: Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Wake Island, and Midway Atoll; and three (3) Caribbean Sea Islands: Navassa Island, Serranilla Bank, and Baja Nuevo Bank.
History of U.S. Territories
1856 Guano Island Act. The first overseas possessions or “insular areas” of the U.S. began in 1856, when the United States Congress enacted the Guano Islands Act. U.S. Citizens were allowed to legally discover and mine the guano deposits of seabirds, a highly prized source of saltpeter for gunpowder, as well as its use as an agricultural fertilizer. The President of the United States was authorized to take possession of any unclaimed islands and allowed to use the military to protect such interests. Over the years, more than 100 islands were claimed under the Guano Island Act by the U.S., including islands, islets, atolls, shoals, or reefs, mostly in the Pacific Ocean, but a few were in the Caribbean Sea. All of the remaining eleven possessions originally obtained via the Guano Island Act are currently territories administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior.
A brief description and history is given below for nine (9) current and former U.S. territories (those which have censuses and substitutes available): Midway Atoll, Wake Island, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Island, Panama Canal Zone, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and The Philippine Islands.
Midway Atoll
Midway Atoll is an official Unorganized Territory of the U.S. that incorporates the only islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago that are not part of the state of Hawaii. Midway’s name comes from its location, half-way between California and Japan. During World War II, Midway’s U.S. naval base was a key element in the Battle of Midway, a major victory and turning point for the U.S. over the Japanese in the Pacific. For several years after World War II, Midway continued as a home to both civilian and military personnel as the key midway point for the Trans-Pacific Telephone Co. Thousands of telephone workers called Midway home until the era of satellite telephone transmissions in the 1960s made the Midway telephone operation obsolete. Now a designated wildlife refuge, Midway Atoll has between 40 and 60 residents living there, most of whom are U.S. Fish and Wildlife System employees or contract workers. Censuses & Substitutes. Midway’s past military and civilian population has been identified in every U.S. Federal Census since 1920. There are also Midway Alumni groups who have published histories and identified former residents and what happened to them.
Wake Island
Wake Island is an official Unorganized Territory of the U.S., an atoll in the western Pacific Ocean also claimed by the Marshall Islands. Administration of the island was delegated by the Department of the Interior to the U.S. Air Force. Wake has a strategic airfield with the longest runway in the Pacific Ocean. The airfield is used as a mid-Pacific refueling stop for military aircraft. There is also a missile launch facility on the island, and a number of contract workers may live on Wake year round – but the exact number is classified. Access to the island by anyone else is restricted. Censuses & Substitutes. Historically, during World War II , the Japanese invaded and occupied Wake Island, taking prisoners to POW camps in China and Japan. Today, an online service is attempting to identifying every prisoner by name and their known descendants. Wake’s past military and civilian population has been identified in every U.S. Federal Census since 1920.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico is an official Organized Territory of the U.S., by far the largest U.S. Territory, with an estimated 2017 population of 3,337,000 people (a total higher than 20 U.S. states). Puerto Rico is an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a few smaller islands, such as Isla Mona, Isla de Culebra, and Isla de Vieques. The north shore of the main island faces the Atlantic Ocean, the south shore faces the Caribbean Sea. The capital is San Juan, a city of about 355,000 people. (There is a rumor that the Puerto Rican population in New York City is greater than that of its capital city).
Puerto Rico Historical Timeline, 1493-1952:
1493. Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailing for Spain discovered an island he named San Juan Bautista on his second voyage to the New World. Juan Ponce de Leon, a “Gentleman Volunteer,” was a member of Columbus’ crew.
1508. Ponce de Leon founded the first Spanish settlement on the island of San Juan Bautista. He later became the first Spanish governor of the island, which merchants and other visitors began referring to as Puerto Rico (Rich Port).
1595. Queen Elizabeth I sent Sir Francis Drake to capture treasure from a wrecked Spanish galleon stored at La Fortaleza, Puerto Rico. Drake failed and returned to England. Unlike the Spanish, the English had no colonies in the New World yet, and English Privateers preyed on any Spanish ships in the Caribbean, looking for Spanish gold.
1598. Sir George Clifford attacked Puerto Rico with an English fleet. He sacked San Juan, but soon after his food supply spoiled and 400 of his men died of dysentery. The survivors burned San Juan and sailed away. Back in Spain, the King reacted to the event by sending a fleet of new immigrants to Puerto Rico to reinforce the colony. After new Puerto Rico fortifications were installed, English, French, or Dutch raiders were never successful again in causing serious harm to the people of Puerto Rico.
1598-1898. Although often coveted by other Europeans, Puerto Rico was heavily fortified against attacks from the outsiders, and remained under control of Spain for another 300 years.
1898. Puerto Rico was ceded by Spain to the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War. A military governor was in charge of the transition from Spanish to American rule.
1900. The U.S. Congress installed a civilian government in Puerto Rico, with strict control over island affairs. A territorial governor was appointed by the President of the United States.
1917. The Jones Act granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans.
1948. Munoz Marin was the fist elected governor by popular vote. He served for four terms.
1952. Puerto Rico became a Commonwealth Territory, with its own constitution, elected governor, elected legislature, and one elected representative to the U.S. House of Representatives (who can introduce legislation and vote in committees, but cannot vote on the floor of the full House).
Censuses & Substitutes. Beginning in 1645, Catholic church records identify the names, christenings, marriages, deaths, and burials of virtually every resident of Puerto Rico for nearly 400 years. Most of the records are online. Civil records, including censuses, tax lists, and vital registrations are also in abundance. For the first 300 years, the records are exclusively in Spanish. Since 1898, many records are in both Spanish and English.
Virgin Islands of the United States (USVI)
USVI is an official Organized Territory of the U.S. From 1733 to 1917, it was the Danish West Indies (DWI) of the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway. Purchased by the United States in 1917, it was renamed the Virgin Islands of the United States to indicate a separation from the nearby British Virgin Islands. The population in 2010 was 106,405. Charlotte Amalie is the capital.
– The U.S. Virgin Islands were organized under the 1954 Organic Act of the Virgin Islands.
– From 1954 to 1970, governors were appointed by the President of the United States.
– In 1970, the Organic Act was amended to provide for an elected governor.
– USVI. also elects one representative to the U.S. House of Representatives (who can introduce legislation and vote in committees, but cannot vote on the floor of the full House).
– Since 1954, USVI has held five constitutional conventions with the intent to become a Commonwealth Territory of the United States. The U.S. Congress has rejected all five proposed constitutions, the last one during the Obama Administration in 2010.
Censuses & Substitutes. From 1671 to 1917, Danish West Indies records are thorough for civil registrations, records of slavery, and probate records. Most records are on microfilm, and some are now available as online databases. Danish censuses, 1835-1911 are all online. And, U.S. records for passenger arrivals in the Virgin Islands from about 1910 forward are very useful for locating people moving into the region.
Panama Canal Zone (1903-1979)
The Panama Canal Zone was formerly an official Organized Territory of the U.S. From 1903, the zone consisted of the canal and an area extending five miles on each side of the canal. The territory was controlled by the United States, which had built the canal and financed its construction. The Canal Zone was abolished as part of the Torrijos-Carrer Treaty of 1977. The jurisdiction of the Canal Zone was formally surrendered to Panama in 1979. The operation and maintenance of the canal continued under joint U.S.-Panamanian control until it was turned over to Panama completely on the last day of 1999. The Republic of Panama has since doubled the capacity of the canal with a new expansion that was completed and opened for ship traffic in 2016.
– In the early 1900s, attempts to negotiate an arrangement with Columbia for a canal zone had failed.
– A convenient Panamanian Revolution ensued, which led to a declaration of independence from Columbia by a new Republic of Panama.
– The U.S. immediately recognized the new Republic of Panama and began negotiating with them for the Isthmus Canal Zone, an agreement consummated in 1903.
– Construction of the canal began in 1904 and the first ship passed through the canal in 1914.
– During the construction period, the Canal Zone was governed by the Isthmian Canal Commission, under the supervision of the U.S. Secretary of War.
– In 1914, the commission was eliminated and the canal was governed directly under the Secretary of War (later Secretary of the Army).
– After an Act of Congress in 1951, the Secretary of the Army appointed a Panama Canal Company board of directors, led by an appointed Governor of the Panama Canal Zone. The governorship was usually given to a retired senior Army officer of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
– For the period 1903-1979, record copies of Canal Zone births, marriages, deaths, divorces, etc. were transferred to the Civilian Records section of the National Archives in St. Louis, MO.
Censuses & Substitutes: Vital Records, Employment Records, Hospital Records, Mortuary Records, and the U.S. Federal Censuses (1910-1940) for the Canal Zone are all available as online digitized databases.
The Territory of Guam
Guam is an official Organized Territory of the U.S. with an established civilian government. Guam was originally ceded by Spain to the Untied States in 1898, as part of the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands, and at 210 square miles, the largest island in Micronesia. Guam’s population in 2016 was 162,896 people. Hagåtña is the capital, the largest city is Dededo. Gaum’s nearest neighbors are the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Papua New Guinea.
1898-1950. Military Rule Era. Guam was under the authority of the U.S. Navy, with an appointed military governor.
1950. The Guam Organic Act made the island an organized territory of the U.S. with a governor appointed by the President of the United States.
1968. The Guam Organic Act was amended to provide for an elected governor, 15 elected senators, and one elected representative to the U.S. House of Representatives (who can introduce legislation and vote in committees, but cannot vote on the floor of the full House).
Censuses & Substitutes. A new major database, Guam Judicial, Land, Obituaries and Census Records, 1712-2000, is now available online. Newspaper indexes are also available, and the U.S. Federal Censuses for Guam, 1900-1940 are available online.
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Since 1978, Northern Mariana Islands has been an official Organized Territory of the United States, consisting of 15 islands in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Currently, of the total of about 55,000 residents, most of the population lives on the islands of Saipan, Tinian, or Rota; the other islands are sparsely populated. The administrative center is Capitol Hill, a village in northwestern Saipan. However, most references consider Saipan to be the capital because the island is governed as a single municipality.
– At the 1898 Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War, the southernmost island of the Marianas (Guam), was ceded to the U.S. by Spain.
– In 1899, Spain sold the remaining northern part of the Marianas to Germany. The Germans administered the islands as part of its colony of German New Guinea, but with minimal development.
– Early in World War I, Japan declared war on Germany and invaded the northern Marianas. In 1919, the South Pacific Mandate by the League of Nations gave Japan all of Germany’s colonial islands, and Japan continued to rule over the Marianas (except Guam) until they were captured by the Americans during World War II.
– After World War II, the Northern Marianas were administered by the United States as a United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
– In four different referendums (1958, 1961, 1963, and 1969), the Northern Marianas voted in favor of joining again with their separated island neighbor of Guam, already an organized territory of the U.S. But Guam rejected the reunification offers in their own referendum of 1969.
– 1975-1978. The people of the Northern Marianas decided not to seek independence, but instead to seek a commonwealth of union as a separate territory of the United States. In 1977, a referendum proposing territorial status with the U.S. was approved by the Northern Marianas voters as well as the United Nations. A new government and constitution came into effect in 1978.
– Now a Commonwealth Territory of the U.S. The Northern Marianas has a constitution, an elected governor, elected legislature, and one elected representative to the U.S. House of Representatives (who can introduce legislation and vote in committees, but cannot vote on the floor of the full House).
Censuses & Substitutes. A major database, Various Municipal and Provincial Documents of the Mariana Islands, 1718-1898, was recently digitized and made available online. As a former province of the Philippines, many of the original Mariana Islands vital records, census, etc. are still located at the Philippines Archives in Manila. There are a few published German records available for 1899-1919; and the U.S. records begin after World War II, e.g., Applications for Inter-Island Travel, listing names and details of many residents.
American Samoa
American Samoa is an official Unorganized Territory of the U.S. In 1899, Germany and the U.S. divided the Samoan Islands into Eastern Samoa (American) and Western Samoa (German). The eastern island group became a territory of the U.S., who took possession in 1900. It was officially named American Samoa in 1917. The population is at about 55,000. The capital is Pago Pago.
– American Samoa has an elected governor and an elected legislature – part of a unique territorial organization that recognizes the President of the United States as its Head of State. Since 1951, the U.S. Secretary of the Interior has held the delegated power of the President. Under the rules for classifying U.S. Territories, American Samoa’s unique organization keeps it from being an official Organized Territory of the United States. And as a result, American Samoa is the only inhabited territory of the United States in which native-born residents are not automatically citizens of the U.S. They are American Nationals, and can travel in the U.S. without a passport, but citizenship has to be applied for by petition for naturalization.
– Swains Island, originally acquired by the U.S. as part of the Guano Island Act in 1860, was added to American Samoa in 1925. The island’s coconut tree plantation was harvested and the island ruled by a proprietorship owned by a single American family (the Jennings Family) from 1856 to 1925 without any outside authority. Descendants of the original Jennings Family still own the island. The 2010 federal census for American Samoa reported a total of 17 persons living on Swains Island.
Censuses & Substitutes. Vital records from 1850 identify native Samoans, with U.S. Era records beginning in 1900 giving births, marriages, and deaths. Samoan censuses were conducted by the High Court of Samoa for the years 1900-1901, 1903, 1908-1909, 1912, 1916, 1920, 1922, 1923, 1926, and 1945, all name lists on microfilm, recently digitized and made available online.
The Philippines (1898-1946)
As part of the 1898 Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War, the U.S. bought the Philippine Islands from Spain.
– The Philippines struggle for independence had begun in 1896 and with the help of the U.S. Navy, Spain was defeated and removed from power.
– After learning that the U.S. had no intention of allowing an immediate independent nation, the Philippine rebels shifted their attacks previously directed at the Spanish to the American intruders. The Filipino-American War ensued, 1899-1902.
– The Americans defeated the Rebels, and in 1902, the Philippine Organic Act established the Philippine Commission, a body appointed by the President of the U.S. to provide legislative and limited executive powers in the Philippines. An appointed Governor-General of the Philippines led the Philippines Commission. The first to hold that office was William Howard Taft, who served until 1904, and who became President of the United States in 1909.
– In 1907, two chambers of a new Philippines legislature were established, with the Philippines Commission acting as the Upper House and an elected Philippine Assembly as the Lower House.
– In 1916, the Jones Act ended the Philippine Commission, replacing it with an elected Philippine Senate as the Upper House.
– In 1934, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was created, an official Organized Territory of the United States. The Commonwealth was established with a constitution outlining a process and timeline to become an independent nation. The process was interrupted by World War II, including an occupation by the Japanese; but the Republic of the Philippines finally became an independent nation in 1946.
Censuses & Substitutes: Although part of the U.S. from 1898 to 1946, the Philippine natives were never included in any of the decennial U.S. federal censuses. A special census was conducted in 1903 by the Philippines Commission, but only the printed report of the census statistics is extant.
– The U.S. Census Bureau conducted censuses of American Military and Naval personnel stationed in Insular Areas of the U.S., including the Philippines, in 1900, 1910, and 1920.
– From 1615-1898, Spanish records are dominated by the outstanding Catholic church records extant for virtually all provinces and islands of the Philippines. Civil registrations from the period of 1898-1980s are also very complete and useful. Many of these records are now online.
Further Reading:
U.S. Territories Censuses & Substitute Names Lists, 1590-2015 (Printed Book), Softbound, 91 pages, Item FR0415.
U.S. Territories Censuses & Substitute Names Lists, 1590-2015 (PDF eBook), 91 pages, Item FR0416.